Health and Safety Problems in Rio de Janeiro

There are many health and safety problems that people in Rio de Janeiro are currently facing today. Probably one of the main problems that Rio has is its large crime rate. Rio de Janeiro has been known for its high crime rate by the State Department for the past 25 years. Crime statistics continues to be critically high and rising levels of crimes in the city of Rio de Janeiro are indicative of organized crime units. They are dealing with categories of rape, theft, gangs, drug abuses and kidnapping.Many different kinds of robberies are held in the city, especially street robberies and even robbery in your vehicle during the night. It is even difficult for tourists to come visit Rio de Janeiro because of the high crimes rates. Many tourists have experienced or seen both robbery and fraud in the city. Some even experienced rape. On April 3rd , 2012 an American woman visiting Brazil with her boyfriend was raped and beaten by 3 men onboard a bus. There should be a stricter system of law r rather have the government pass a new law regarding the issues of these crimes.That would help the city of Rio to reduce the crimes happening there. Rio de Janeiro has been known for having many slums in the city, and these areas are called favelas. Rios favelas have been statistically the center of high crimes rates. Since the 1980s, nearly every Rio favela was controlled by violent drug gangs or criminal organizations. Rio de Janeiro has over 1,000 favelas. At one point, the favelas were the home of the most wanted man in the city of Rio de Janeiro.There were many drug gangs and many people walking in the streets armed with weapons, fearing neither the police nor the government. Innocent people living in the area were afraid of the gangs. There were also many robberies and rape in the slums. In order to take care of the crime problem in their slums they established what is known as the Favela Pacification Program (FPP) first introduced in November 2008. It recruited thousands of police to secure and watch over almost every part of Rio's favelas.They established permanent presence called Unidade de Policia Pacificadora (UPP). Police took care and arrested violent drug gangs and even had the most known gangs in the slums in their custody. Because of this they were able to reduce the crime rates drastically in Rio de Janeiro. Another result of the UPPS formation is the decline of homicide rates in the city. Since 2005, homicides in the state and city of Rio de Janeiro have declined over 50 percent in real numbers and in the homicide rate.The homicide rate in the ity of Rio de Janeiro has dropped dramatically from 42 homicides per 100,000 in 2005 to 24 homicides per 100,000 in 2012. Another health issue in Rio de Janeiro is the infant mortality rate. In Rio de Janeiro the rate varies greatly from region to region. In 2008, the citys overall average was 19 deaths for every 1,000 live births until 12 months old. Barra da TiJuca, a richer neighborhood in Rio reco rded 6 deaths per 1,000 live births while another town in Rio has a rate of 21 deaths per 1,000 births. This shows the difference between the rich and the poor areas of Rio.As for prenatal care for pregnant women in Rio, only 32% of women met the target of seven visits during pregnancy. The lack of prenatal care reflects the high percentage of infant mortality. To help with the issues of infant mortality rate, Rio should issue more health centers for women or people in need of health care, especially in the slums ot Rio. Not many people can attord medical care so it would help the people to have mini health centers around their neighborhood. Women would better be able to come for checkups during pregnancy.

Benjamin Collins Quarshie Kwesi Essay

Honorable Headmaster, Members of Staff, Co-aspirant, Out-going Prefect, Fellow Student, Ladies and Gentlemen. I greet you all. I am very grateful for being given the chance to read my manifesto to you, as an aspirant for the position of boy school prefect. I am Benjamin Quarshie, a second year art student of this great institution. I am before you today, to solicit to your vote for the enviable position of a boys school prefect for the 2013/2014 academic year. Honorable headmaster, my reasons for vying for this position are very tangible and varied. Firstly, my personal qualities compelled me to vie for this enviable position. I am specifically referring to my high sense of discipline, hardworking, academically good, physically and friendly. These are not all, my astuteness, Honest and ability to turn adversity into advantage are just proverbial. Beloved student, a compound prefect should be descent and well discipline, dedicated and wiliness to serve his people with all diligence. These are qualities that I am not deficient in. I know by now most of you are wondering how I will be able to realize them, I am specifically referring to my tactics for achieving these. Honorable headmaster, if you give me the mandate to serve you as your boy school prefect for the 2013/2014 academic year, my first priority will be ensuring high sense of discipline, as discipline being the hallmark of every institution, I intend when giving the mandate, to build upon the already laid foundation of the school by my predecessor. To do this, I need your maximum cooperation and that of the administration, to see to it that the discipline level of this institution has raising to our expectation both in mind and attitude to deal with the environmental challenges of this institution.

Judaic Art Essay

The form of the human body has been used throughout art’s history: beginning with the Greeks, whose use of the nude form has only been outshined by the Romans, the human body has been a fascination of artists. The lack of the human form in Judaic art is therefore striking against a background so rich in the dynamic presence of the past classical periods all the way to modern culture. The lack of this form will be discussed in this essay and its relevance to the Judaic culture. Judaic art can best be said to have started in the Byzantine era. The early Christian art in fact is a plethora of Judaic art. Religion is the dominating focus of this artistic style (as religion is the dominating focus of most of the art period’s focus). Thus, a proper look at the beginnings of Judaic art is needed in order to have a better understanding of Judaic art in modern times. Early Judaic art is found throughout the catacombs. The focus in these catacombs of the artists was religious symbolism; that is, faith was the main component because it was their faith that the polytheistic society was persecuting them for. Thus, while the human form was found in abundance in previous artistic periods, its presence in early Judaic art is not found because the human body was not the culture’s important faucet of delivering their beliefs. It was God that was the main focus in early Judaic art, either symbolically as a Shepard or even in the colors the artists used. In fact the human body was unimportant until it came to depicting God, and even then the focus was on the symbol of God and not the corporeal. This lack of a focus on the human form is further illustrated in Judaic art during the late 4th century when the presence of animals is seen throughout Judaic art as a symbol of faith (i. e. notice the use of sheep in Good Shepard. 425-50 Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna). There is a consistency of the religious background being the main component of the Judaic artist’s work (i. e. the work of Maurycy Minkowski and Samuel Hirszenberg are great examples of this). Since it is religion that is the main focus of the artistic style the paintings and other art forms reveal a tradition of extolling the landscape of the religious home of Jews, the culture, and religious symbolism through each. This can be seen in Nahum Gutman’s Small Town in which the life and times of the early Jewish immigrant in the promised land can be seen. The scene which Gutman portrays in his painting is that of Tel Aviv a new Jewish town. This painting is aesthetical to the Jewish culture in which new towns were springing up everywhere in which the main religion was Judaism and it is considered a primitive realism which gives way to other Jewish artists such as Cezanne whose portrayal of landscapes in vibrant colors is world renowned. In the basic forms of life, from village portrayals to fruit, Judaic art is extolling God through each painting or sculpture: in these basic forms of land or villages there is an essence that encapsulates the beauty of creation that goes beyond the human form as seen in Roman art, and truly represents the greatness of Yaw-weh. Thus, the importance of the human form in art history can be seen in Greek and Roman periods but for Judaic art there is a higher calling. Works Cited Sporre, Dennis. (2008). The Creative Impulse: An Introduction to the Arts. 8th edition. Prentice Hall.

Industrial production of laccase Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Industrial production of laccase - Essay Example This enzyme is mostly seen in higher plants and fungi. In plants, laccases can be seen in trees, turnips, cabbage, asparagus, beets, apples, pears, potatoes and other vegetables. It is also detected in other plant species like mango, mung bean, prune, syncamore, peach, pine and lacquer. It is also evident among insects likeCalliphora,Diploptera,Drosophelia, Sarchophaga,Rhodnius and Papilio.However, wood rotting fungi are the most common producers of Laccase. Even though laccase is present in plants, insects and fungi it’s activity is limited in bacteria like Marinomonas meditteranea, Azospirillium lipoferum. Laccase is an enzyme with less saccharide compounds in bacteria and fungi compared to plants. The studied that conducted are on extracellular proteins although intracellular proteins are found in several insects and fungi. The purified form of laccase exhibits a blue appearance. The production of laccase from fungi is practiced for industrial use. As per Mayer( 2002, pg 55 1-65)â€Å"Laccases are involved in fungal virulence and possibly in lignification in higher plants† History and Development The laccase enzyme was discovered in Japanese tree Rhus Vernicifera more than one century ago. For many years it was believed that only the ligninolytic system of some white rot fungi could aid in production of lacasse. However, it was Bourbonnais andPaice who found that laccase can catalyze the oxidation of non – phenolic benzylalchohols with the aid of redox mediator. This led to the discovery that laccase mediator system can degrade effectively residual lignin. Because of its extensive reaction capabilities and broad usage in biotechnology it was further studied. In most fungi, lacasse is produced at low level which is not enough for commercial purpose.Lacasse are promising enzymes which has a conventional usage in industries like textile, pulp and paper, pharmaceuticals and nanobiotechnology. Lacasse is generally produced by fungi grown on ba sal media at low concentration. As per Gedikli(2010,pg.9 -16) â€Å"Lacasse activity depends on the type of fungal strain used, growth conditions employed, the presence and the absence of inducers, incubation time, nature and composition of culture medium and genetic manipulation†.In order to obtain higher concentration various supplements need to be added like metal ions. White rot fungi is known to have diverse response to inducers in lacasse activity. If inducers are added it can enhance the concentration of lacasse.The lacasse production is highly depended on the cultivation conditions of the fungi strains. The lacasse is primarily produced in industries by submerged cultivation method. However, the excessive growth of mycelium is one of the disadvantages of this method as it hampers the production yield due to mass transfer and metabolic limitation. But this situation can be controlled by the immobilization of cells. Solid state fermentation is also a method to produce l accase. The laccase enzyme is extracellular and secreted in to a medium through filamentous fungi. The secondary metabolism of different fungi generally produces lacasse. The lacasse production is influenced by different factors like type of cultivation, concentration of

Social Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Social Psychology - Essay Example Although we as humans, are taught to learn and think for ourselves various factors exist, which tend to influence our independent thinking and coerce us to follow the more socially acceptable norms. This paper discusses the various popular experiments conducted during that era, and deduces, based on the observations, whether human beings are naturally built to submit to authority and comply with the rules laid down for them, or is it a case of exception rather than the norm. Finally, it concludes that human beings do have a tendency to be intrinsically motivated to conform to authority and to obey authority. Conformity refers to the transformation in behaviour or attitudes of people triggered by the need / desire to pursue the beliefs or standards set by others. It entails following the group ideologies, by totally ignoring or disregarding personal opinions. Obedience on the other hand, merely implies obeying the instructions / orders. These two concepts can be studied or explained i n a better manner by way of various experiments carried out by researchers such as Asch, Milgram, Zimbardo and the likes (Andersen, Taylor, 2007). According to a study conducted by Asch, (1951): a group of individuals were involved in an experiment to study the issues related to ‘conformity’ and the manner in which individuals behave / react in a given situation. The basic objective of the experiment was to observe the reactions of the participants and substantiate the hypotheses developed by the researchers with regard to ‘conformity’. However, for the purpose of this experiment the participants were mislead into believing that they were being involved in a study on ‘visual perception’ and kept the true purpose of the experiment, a secret. They were seated in a room along with a few stooges (i.e. individuals who were part of the team of the researchers conducting the experiment) who were made to pose as participants. The participants were show n lines on a screen and were asked to point out which one out of the three was of the same length as the target line. However, their responses were manipulated by the three stooges, who deliberately made mistakes by providing wrong answers. The purpose behind such an experiment was to measure the number of times the participants were influenced in their decisions / answers, by the responses of the stooges (Andersen, Taylor, 2007; Weiten, 2008). The method used by Asch seems quite artificial in its approach as it lacks validity. This is because the participants are required to conform when a correct answer actually exists. Disagreements do occur in everyday lives when there are hardly any right or wrong answers hence this approach seems highly illogical and invalid. Furthermore the results derived from the same may not be consistent in the long run, which is evident from the subsequent experiments conducted by British researchers Perrin and Spencer (Cox, 2002). It is also argued that Asch’s experiments were conducted at a time when the nation was exposed to an external environment which generated high levels of

International etiqute Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

International etiqute - Research Paper Example India hosts people from different religions and languages. There is a majority of Hindus, followed by Muslims, Sikhs and Christians. Languages spoken include but are not limited to Hindi / Urdu, English and Punjabi. Business trends in a country are immensely influenced by the social and cultural norms prevailing in that country. Likewise, business in India is unique in nature. Indians are greatly influenced by the English people who have ruled them for centuries in the past. Accordingly, good business culture in India is considered one that would conform to the Western standards in terms of business language, dress codes, ethics, organizational structure and functionality. Generally any person who can speak good English is considered literate and qualified for many types of opportunities in the market. Indians are generally polite and sharp. Usually, they would frequently be observed making promises on petty matters to convince the other person. India generally has a 5 day working week, Monday through Friday, with 8 working hours in a day, which includes a 1 hour lunch break. However, in some organizations, it is also compulsory for workers to work on Saturday. â€Å"Business hours are usually from 9.30 to 5.30pm (weekdays) with a lunch break from 1pm to 2pm, and Saturdays from 9.30am to 1pm.† (www.iexplore.com, n.d.). However, (Nita, 2008) mentioned in her report that the official work week in India consists of 48 hours which starts from Monday and ends on Saturday. Sunday is officially declared as a holiday. Use of fax as a medium of communication is quite frequent in Indian business culture. Although this seems quite simple and easy, yet managers can not be approached directly through a phone call, unless a formal appointment has been taken following the proper hierarchical procedure. Confidential matters are not discussed in emails and spams are not replied. Additionally, in writing business letters or other documents,

Conversation Topics for business occasions Essay

Conversation Topics for business occasions - Essay Example Awareness of these goals provides the subordinates with a direction so that they can equip themselves with the skills required to be eligible for the opportunities lying ahead. The subordinate should particularly try to ask the boss how he/she would be involved in the project. The subordinate should try to consent with the boss over the basic approach and standards. The subordinate should share with the boss what he/she thinks the ideal approach is and then he/she may ask the boss for input. â€Å"Be sure you understand upfront what the guiding principles are for the work — not just the tactical elements. These principles are what you should be discussing with your boss† (Chatman cited in Gallo, 2011). In addition to that, the chances of subordinates’ consideration for those opportunities by the boss are enhanced because the boss has already discussed the plans with them. A very good and informative topic of discussion is technology. Discussing latest technologic al research and products with a boss not only sets a good impression upon the boss, but also forms a very interesting topic of discussion. These days, with the pace of technological development being so fast, there is a lot to discuss. Subordinates can discuss the innovative features of the latest gadgets, draw comparison between the newest and the old models of gadgets, discuss whether a particular gadget is worth investing money in or not, and most importantly, whether a certain gadget can be used to improve the business they are concerned with in some way. Business meetings are very suitable occasions to discuss innovative ideas in. Subordinates can suggest to a boss how the use of a new gadget can help them in the business operations, and how it can be integrated into the organizational culture. This impresses upon the boss that the subordinates are very knowledgeable, hard working, and can contribute to the development of the organization. Politics might be a good topic of disc ussion with a boss in a business meeting provided that the subordinates can consent with the boss’s opinion and show respect for his/her views. Nevertheless, it is a risky topic to discuss with a boss because many people have emotional connections with their political parties and when they discuss politics, they indulge into a heated argument with the critics. If this happens between a boss and a subordinate, it is not good for the relationship. While discussing politics, it is recommendable for the subordinates to first listen to the boss’s stance, if they can agree with that, they should discuss it; if they cannot, they should either remain silent or try to change the topic articulately. Every topic that is discussed in a business meeting between a boss and the subordinates does not necessarily have to relate to business. Sports is another very interesting and engaging topic to discuss with a boss on a business meeting. Meetings are wonderful occasions for discussing sports because the boss and the subordinates are having a one-to-one discussion, and have sufficient time to discuss such things. This is different from the daily interaction that happens in the office which is constrained by limited time and pressure of work. â€Å"During the frenetic work week, they encounter the boss as the source of discipline, assignments, occasional reprimands and, typically, very little personal chit

Research Planing Proposal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Research Planing Proposal - Essay Example To gain competitive advantage, companies need to find the factors that influence buying decision and loyalty of customers, especially in the masstige brand category which is fairly new to commerce, being only half-century or so old (as a recognised category). As the differences between the brands tighten and the differences in the prices gets closer, the customer's perceptions of brand and price, as well as the marketability of a particular masstige product become of increased importance to companies which exist between prestigious and mass-market categories. The rationale is that, if research can better understand the impacts of brand and price on customer purchase habits in relationship to the company marketability, a stronger framework for customer relationships and building customer perceptions towards the masstige products can be built. The ultimate goal of doing so is to promote better marketing procedures for companies in this 'middle class' bracket. Shimp (1999) defined a brand as a label for describing any object of concerted marketing effort. In the context of services marketing therefore, this label can be a name, sign, term, symbol or a design (Krishnan and Hartline, 2001). Brands however can mean different things to different people. These differences largely stem from the way and manner brands can be perceived or understood. A cursory review of the history of brands informs us that customers' perceptions of brands have not been static. It has evolved over the years as understanding of the concept deepened. Clifton (2000) recalled the days when brands were perceived as either bottles of coca cola or cans of Kellogg's and compared it to modern times when the concept can be applied to anything and everybody. Amber (2000) has defined "branding" as an intangible asset built by marketing, and which exists largely in the heads of stakeholders, especially those of the end user. The author further pointed out that if a company got its brand equity right, profits should largely take care of it. The import of this statement can be understood from the components that make the equity of a brand. These are brand awareness and brand image. A brand that people have good knowledge about and can readily recall with favourable associations is an enduring asset to whoever owns it. Furthermore, it would have favourable image and therefore well perceived. Such a brand can be said to have a higher equity or value. It is not too difficult to sell products and services with this brand name tacked on it. Higher volumes of sales at minimal costs transcend into higher profits. From a financial viewpoint, Aaker (1996) defined branding as a set of assets and liabilities linked to a brand, its name and symbol that add to or subtract from the value provided by a service to a firm's customers. He further gave the main

Introduction to Professional Nursing Practice Essay - 1

Introduction to Professional Nursing Practice - Essay Example The other appropriate measure, which head nurses ought to ensure, encompasses avoiding incidences of nurses’ shortage (Subramanian &Vinoth, 2012). Since this is what results to excessive workload on the part of nurses for they end up serving many patients beyond what their both physical and psychological endurance can adequately support. Shortage of nurses in hospitals is a major cause of Burnout whose early signs encompass stress and irritability that signify an overworked nurse. Therefore, nurses ought to learn how know themselves and their limitations (Gagnon, 2008). Moreover, nurses are supposed to maintain a healthy lifestyle by fitting enjoyable leisure activities in their daily lives. This will help in reducing stress. Furthermore, nurses’ training is to put other peoples care before them (Walter, Plaumann & Awa, 2010). This intervention normally enables them learn how to take care of themselves and not to mistake self-care as being selfish but as a way of energizing as well as maintaining one’s emotional and physical stamina. In post cases, this comes with enhancing interpersonal and social relationships with friends and family, which is via healthy communication (Elder, Evans & Nizette, 2009) Elder, Evans & Nizette (2009) in their study have clearly shown how burnout syndrome is an ethical issue and that all nurses have a moral obligation to take the necessary steps to reduce burnout in themselves. This is because, as seen above, burnout syndrome is an undesirable state due to the nurses’ interaction with patients and its effects it on immediate colleagues. Mainly, these associations act as influential organizations towards promoting health mostly comprising of registered nurses. This is through lobbying government and other respective authorities towards availing appropriate working environment for nurses, which will in turn lead improved medical care. Their focuses

An Arab from Qatar in the Middle East Assignment

An Arab from Qatar in the Middle East - Assignment Example A great abundance of my family resides in the metro Detroit, MI area. My family came from Qatar in the 1970s and have been relatively successful in the small business sector. My family owns a variety of small businesses spanning from liquor stores to restaurants. One of the fundamental successes of my family is the continuous reinforcement of unity and our strong family bond. Although my family in the metro Detroit area still adhere to fundamental beliefs of our culture, there are notable differences and the impact of western culture can be measured. My family from both the Qatar and America strongly believe in the sanctity of marriage and the strength of family unity. It is heavily believed that marriage is meant to be entered into for life duration and that the man is the head of the family. It is my family's belief that a big family should be sought as an abundance of children ensures perpetual family strength. Sons are heavily desired as the son will carry on the family's name and take of the elders in their ripe age. The religion of Islam which is learned and studied from the holy book Quran is practiced by the entire family in both Qatar and the United States. We strongly believe in Allah and his faithful messenger the prophet Muhammed (peace be upon him) and his divine revelation of Gods word. It is the desire of my family in both Qatar and the United States to make the pilgrimage of Hajj and visit the holy lands of Mecca and Medina at least once in our lifetime. The men in Qatar adorn the flowing robes and some opt to wear casual attire. Those who do choose to wear the adorning robes typically accompany them with hijab head garb. Most of the men from my family in the United States have adapted to the western culture of clothing. They choose to wear casual attire such as blue jeans and tee shirts, however, the overall belief system is still strong.

Wall Street the movie Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Wall Street the movie - Essay Example This is the case with the main character Gordon Gekko and as the film progresses, also that of his protà ©gà © named Bud Fox who started out as a bit player in the stock brokerage industry but in due time became a significant stockbroker due to the profitable trades he made as he engaged in extremely complicated and often illegal schemes to minimize his trading risks. One of his favorite tools is insider trading, which is using information on a firm that is not available to the general buying public which gives him an undue and illegal advantage (McGee 36). Insider trading is a capital crime because it erodes confidence in the stock market as it is one of the leading sources for capital formation; the stock market is just like any market where buyers and sellers met and agree on a deal, except that what they deal and agree upon are monies and in effect, financing for starting a business and expanding an existing business by providing much-needed capital for entrepreneurs and businessmen. The entrepreneurs are the ones who need money while the investors provide that money buying their stocks offered on Wall Street by these stockbrokerage and investment houses who earn a commission. Gekko and Fox teamed up and plotted to engage in a hostile takeover of an airline where Fox’s father works by using a leveraged buyout (LBO), and then turn around by using excess pension funds to pay off the debt incurred in this hostile takeover and earn profits from breaking up the airline and selling its assets individually. However, the law and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) arrested both Fox and Gekko for insider trading. Economic aspects – the film showed how a stock market is essential to the economy of a nation as it serves as the marketplace where lenders and borrowers can meet and in turn help the economy achieve growth by providing the essential capital to finance new business ventures and expand existing ones such as introducing a new product line that requires money or enter new foreign markets to expand the sales by generating new revenue streams. The film also touches on the sensitive topic of greed which is why securities laws and regulatio ns are put in place to protect the investing public from unscrupulous individuals and trading firms. A good example is the case of Martha Stewart who was convicted of insider trading regarding the sale of stocks she owned by using insider information before the stock price collapsed. In her case, she used an illegal method which is also unethical as it constitutes fraud. Capital – the word as used in economics means the man-made goods which are then used to produce a future continuous supply of goods and services. Capital is essentially of two kinds in terms of their ultimate end user: the first is capital goods used for further producing new capital goods for perpetuity (a continuous supply) and the second is for consumption in which there is eventual depletion. Capital gets worn out from use over a period of time, gets destroyed in natural or man-made calamities, and also become obsolete due to technological advances (like the telegraph equipment replaced by newer telephone s and the old typewriters being replaced by personal computers). Obsolescence happens when a thing or service is still in good working condition and usable but no longer wanted (same case with the telephone landline which has been replaced by the cellular phone and other mobile electronics gadgets). Economics deals primarily with the concept of how to deal with scarcity and making trade-off decisions regarding where capital should be invested in the most efficient way. In the film, the monies of Gekko could have been used to fund

Critical Thinking and Perception Essay Example for Free

Critical Thinking and Perception Essay What is real? Our perception of reality is often a product of the environment in which we live. In general, we formulate ideas of reality based on our own experiences as well as the experiences of the people around us. Our lives are influenced constantly by our surroundings. I truly believe that perception is a learned skill and not instinctive. Outside of our communities, television, radio and movies sculpt our perception of the outside world. I think most of my thinking at the ordinary level is based on perception, language, and information. At the most there is one logic step: If this than that. I think most thinking takes place in the perceptual stage. These are the questions that arise, How much do I take in? and how do I look at things? This perception is based on habits of perceptions and what I hear, what I read and how I express myself. I understand that we do not need to use much explicit logic because we have already built the logic into our language. For example, killing is bad unless justified by war or self-dense. I know that with decisions I followed what was recommended and what my friends were doing and then rationalized it with the following rationalization: Everyone does this and the stock rises for a while and when the market eventually gets a severe correction I rationalize that as well. This rationalization is based on informationnot all-available information but a selection that fits what I was inclined to do anyway. I think that logic can be used to reinforce perceptions (and prejudices) but logic and argument will not change perceptions. Perception is more than sensing; it is processing, reacting, and interpreting. Faith Bryne describes perception as, detecting the nature of both outer and inner worlds. In many cases, it also means responding in some way, either consciously or unconsciously. (Perception, 57) Perception is the way we look at things and I think processing is what we do with that perception. In my view if we take processing for granted then perception becomes even more important, because the way we look at a situation will determine what we can do about it. The influences (family, teachers, religion, race, environment, and economic level) that have shaped or conditioned my identity by instilling values, beliefs, viewpoints or attitudes that I have a ccepted without challenge serves as a perceptual block. The situations in which I am less of an individual because of these influences occur when I refuse to understand someone elses opinion or look for other points of view because of something I have been conditioned to believe is true. I am not one who handles others opinions without asking for them. I am not very consistent in ensuring that my opinions are informed. Often times I have not taken careful consideration of the evidence and have treated opinions as facts especially if I have expressed it to the point that I have begun to believe it as truth. At times, in what matters most I am inclined to assume too much and take too much for granted. I feel the strongest urge to conform when someone is a positive role model and conforming to this type of behavior I believe adds value. However, a situation in which this conformist tendency has interfered with my judgment is following others because it seemed the lesser of two evils. All to often at the workplace this is how some decisions are made just to close an issue that ultimately will recycle. Additionally, I tend to jump or make hasty conclusions more often than I would like. This occurs more so in the area of personal relationships. I have learned that there ar e some errors and bad habits that can lead to shallow or uncritical decisions instead of careful judgments. I have gained the most insight from the following errors and bad habits, which are: Resistance to change (habits), Conformity, Rationalization, Stereotyping, common sense, Oversimplification, Hasty conclusions, and unwarranted assumptions. I think the real key to each the of errors and habits mentioned above is my being conscious of the tendency to do them and to get into the habit of applying and practicing the different ways or approaches to avoiding the blocks to critical thinking. This will be an ongoing process if I am to be in control of my own beliefs, and to somehow gain an understanding of the truth, then I must know what good reasoning is, and be aware of the ways in which my reasoning (and that of others) can go astray. How I tend to perceive certain situations in my life and how others may see it may not always agree with my thinking. This is a big obstacle that I will have to work on being better at and learning how to understand others perceptions. References Brynie, Faith Hickman. (2001). Perception. Blackbirch Press, Inc. (p 57

The Role And Importance Of Educational Research Philosophy Essay

The Role And Importance Of Educational Research Philosophy Essay Educational research is important because it is conducted in order to provide trustworthy information regarding educational problems and their solutions. There are many things that need to be considered when looking at what educational research is for example some thought needs to be put into looking at current paradigms, what counts as evidence in educational research, maintaining quality, and the role of peer review in validating new knowledge in educational research. There are many different approaches to educational research which are shaped by many different research paradigms. Koul (2008) states that the various research paradigms have different criteria for ontology and epistemology to maintain quality standards. The ontology and epistemology of a research paradigm influence researchers applying the quality standards, methodology and methods (para. 1). What is Educational Research: Research is a combination of both experience and reasoning and must be regarded as the most successful approach to the discovery of truth (Borg, 1963, as cited in Cohan, Manion, Morrison, 2000). Educational research can be defined as a purposeful and systematic enquiry to solve a problem, illuminate a situation or add to our knowledge (Mutch, 2005, pp. 14) by the discovery of non-trivial facts and insights (Howard Sharp, 1983, as cited in Bell, 2005, pp. 2) in relation to the improvement of education policy and practices, with a commitment to broader dissemination of research findings beyond publication in high status, international, refereed journals (Lingard Gale, 2010, pp. 31). In order to define educational research we must first look at what research is. Research is a combination of both experience and reasoning and must be regarded as the most successful approach to the discovery of truth, particularly as far as the natural sciences are concerned (Borg, 1963, as cited in Cohan, Manion, Morrison, 2000). Therefore Educational Research can be defined as a `purposeful and systematic enquiry to solve a problem, illuminate a situation or add to our knowledge (Mutch, 2005, pp. 14) `by the discovery of non-trivial facts and insights (Howard Sharp, 1983, as cited in Bell, 2005, pp. 2) `in relation to the improvement of education policy and practices, with a commitment to broader dissemination of research findings beyond publication in high status, international, refereed journals (Lingard Gale, 2010, pp. 31). Anderson and Arsenault, (1998) suggest that there are ten characteristics of educational research that can be grouped into three main categories; the purpose of research, the procedures of research and the role of researcher (p. 7). They go on to explain that the purpose of research is to solve the problems and develop knowledge, the procedure involves collecting or generating data with accurate observation, objective interpretation, and verification. It also involves carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis (Anderson and Arsenault, 1998 pp. 7), and finally the role of researchers is to be patient and careful in every step of the researchers procedures, and be experts in their area of study, which requires them to use research data to develop solutions and increase knowledge. What is a Paradigm: The use of this fashionable word came about from the philosopher of science, Thomas Kuhn. The word comes from the Greek work paradeigma which translates literally as pattern. It is used in social science to describe an entire way of looking at the world (Davidson Tolich, 1999). It can be viewed as a basic set of beliefs held by an individual that represent a worldview which defines the nature of the world, the individuals place in it and the range of possible relationships to that world and its parts (Denzin Lincoln, 1998, pp. 200) A paradigm relates to a particular set of philosophical assumptions about what the world is made of and how it works. One way to consider a paradigm is as a collection of ontological and epistemological assumptions (Davidson Tolich, 1999). Inquiry paradigms define for inquirers what it is they are about, and what falls within and outside the limits of legitimate inquiry. (http://prk.dreamwidth.org/60977.html) Examining paradigms define for inquirers what paradigms are about and what fall within in and outside the limits of that paradigm? Denzin and Lincon (1998) state that there are three fundamental questions that need to be addressed in order to complete research. These questions are; the epistemological question, the ontological question, and the methodological question it is important to note that however one answers a question it effects how they answer the other two. The Epistemological Question: Epistemology is the study of the nature of knowledge. http://www.translationdirectory.com/glossaries/glossary007_e.htm Epistemology raises the questions of how we know what we know, and what is knowledge. http://atheism.about.com/od/philosophybranches/p/Epistemology.htm It encompasses the debate on if knowledge can be obtained through experience (Empiricism) or by the use of reasoning (rationalism). The epistemological question is asking what the form and nature of reality is and, what can be known about it? Denzin and Lincoln (1998) uses the example of if a real world is assumed, then what can be known about it are how things really are or how things really work where as other questions like matters of aesthetic or moral significance, fall outside the realm of legitimate scientific inquiry. (pp. 201) Questions for analysing paradigms Research paradigms Positivism Epistemological questions Nature of knowledge Knowledge can be described in a systematic way Knowledge consists of verified hypotheses that can be regarded as facts or laws. Probabilistic i.e. holds true for large groups of people or occurs in many situations Knowledge is accurate and certain Role of theory Theories are: Normative Present models General propositions explaining causal relationships between variables Theory building/testing Postulate a theories that can be tested in order to confirm or reject Prove a theory from observable phenomena / behaviour Test theories in a controlled setting, empirically supporting or falsifying hypotheses through process of experimentation Role of research Uncover reality i.e. natural laws Scientifically explain / describe, predict and control phenomena Research findings are true if: Can be observed an measured Can be replicated and are generalizable Role of common sense None only deductive reasoning (Voce, 2004 pp. ) The Ontological Question: Ontology is defined by as What is the nature of the relationship between the knower or would be knower and what can be known? Denzin Lincoln (1998) continue with their example of reality being assumed because one has already answered the epistolocial question the posture of the knower must be one of objective detachment or value freedom in order to discover these thing.. What is the nature of the relationship between the knower or would be knower and what can be known? The answer that can be given to this question is constrained by the answer already given to the ontological question; that is, not just any relationship can now be postulated. So if, for example, a real reality is assumed, then the posture of the knower must be one of objective detachment or value freedom in order to discover how things really are and how things really work (Denzin Lincoln, 1998, pp. 201). Questions for analysing paradigms Research paradigms Positivism Ontological Questions Nature of reality An objective, true reality exists which is governed by unchangeable natural cause-effect laws Consists of stable pre-existing patterns or order that can be discovered Reality is not time- nor context-bound Reality can be generalised Nature of human beings Rational Shaped by external factors (same cause has the same effect on everyone) i.e. mechanical model / behaviourist approach. Under certain conditions people will probably engage in a specified behaviour (Voce, 2004) The Methodological Question: Methodology is defined by the free dictionary as a body of practices, procedures, and rules used by those who work in a discipline or engage in an inquiry; a set of working methods http://www.thefreedictionary.com/methodological Therefore the methodological question surrounds how the inquirer goes about finding out what they believe can be known? Depending on what answers have already been given to the above questions they will constrain the answer to this one, whether the methods are qualitative or quantitave. The methodological question cannot be reduced to a question of methods; methods must be fitted to a predetermined methodology (Denzin Lincoln, 1998, pp. 201) How can the inquirer (would be knower) go about finding out whatever he or she believes can be known? The answer that can be given to this question in constrained by answers already given to the first two questions; that is, not just any methodology is appropriate. For example, a real reality pursued by an objective inquirer mandates control of possible confounding factors, whether the methods are qualitative (e.g. observational) or quantitative (e.g. analysis of covariance). The methodological question cannot be reduced to a question of methods; methods must be fitted to a predetermined methodology (Denzin Lincoln, 1998, pp. 201). Questions for analysing paradigms Research paradigms Positivism Methodological questions Role of researcher Objective, independent from the subject Investigator often controls the investigated Role of values Science is value-free Values have no place in research must eliminate all bias Methods Empirical Structured and replicable observation Quantification / measurement Experimental directly manipulate variables and observe Type of studies Survey studies Verification of hypotheses Statistical analysis Quantitative descriptive studies What is Positivism: Knowledge is based not on unchallengeable, rock-solid foundations, but rather upon human conjectures (Phillips Burbules, 2000). Positivism is an epistemological perception which states that only knowledge which is based on sensory experience and positive verification is authentic knowledge. More simply worded, positivism is the view that all true knowledge is scientific, and that all things are ultimately measureable. Positivism emerged from the success of the scientific approach in natural sciences such as physics, chemistry, and biology. The impetus for this came from the overwhelming success of science in understanding and solving problems in the natural world. The ontology of positivism is realism; an apprehend able reality that is assumed to exist, driven by immutable natural laws and mechanisms. Knowledge of the ways things are is conventionally summarised in the form of time- and context-free generalizations, some of which take the form of cause-effect laws. Research can, in principle, converge on the true state of affairs. The basic posture of the paradigm is argued to be both reductionist and deterministic (Hesse, 1980, cited in Denzin Lincoln, 1998, pp. 204). The epistemology of positivism is dualist and objectivist; meaning the investigator and the investigated object are assumed to be independent entities, and the investigator to be capable of studying the object without influencing it or being influenced by it. When influence in either direction (threats to validity) is recognised, or even suspected, various strategies are followed to reduce or eliminate it. Inquiry takes place as through a one-way mirror. Values biases are prevented from influencing outcomes, so long as the prescribed procedures are rigorously followed. Replicable findings are, in fact, true (Denzin Lincoln, 1998, pp. 204). The methodology of positivism is experimental and manipulative. Questions and/or hypotheses are stated in propositional form and subjected to empirical tests to verify them; possible confounding conditions must be carefully controlled (manipulated) to prevent outcomes from being improperly influenced (Denzin Lincoln, 1998, pp. 204). Originally conceptualised by Auguste Comte in the early 19th Century (Pickering, 1993), positivism has been greatly criticised, including by positivist themselves. A number of the concerns raised have influenced the epistemological position taken within this research; particularly that knowledge is a social variable, knowing one is the subject of a study, changes in ones behaviour, and the notion of subjectivity and value orientation. What is Social Construction of Reality/ Post-Positivism: The Social Construction Reality/ Post-positivism paradigm include the following paradigms: interpretive, critical, feminist, and postmodern paradigm. I think interpretive paradigm is the paradigm that most education research is  based on  at the University of Waikato. The social construction of reality assumes that knowledge is subjective and unique therefore researchers undertake systematic and painstaking analysis of social episodes (Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2007, pp. 19). This is a less reductionist approach to research recognizing the importance of context and aiming to represent how participants view their world. Rather than seeking generalisations this paradigm accepts that reality is multilayered and complex (Cohen et al, 2007, pp. 21) therefore data collected are open to multiple interpretations. This approach is more speculative based on the assumption that theory is emergent therefore the researcher should not be seeking evidence purely to support a predetermined hypothesis. Post-positivism is a meta-theoretical stance that analyses and adjusts positivism in light of the criticisms which positivism, as a scientific paradigm, has received. Post-positivism offers primary amendments to the positivist paradigm. Firstly, that the absolute separation of the knower and the known is not assumed; and secondly, that a single, shared reality which excludes all others is not assumed to be a true basis for reasoning. It is critical to note that post-positivism is not a rejection of the scientific paradigm, but seeks to amend the criticisms associated with positivism (Phillips Burbules, 2000; Zammito, 2004). Post-positivism states that knowledge is based not on unchallengeable, rock-solid foundations, but rather on human conjectures (Phillips Burbules, 2000; Zammito, 2004). Epistemologically speaking post-positivism works on the position that facts and law deduced through research are probably true (Guba Lincoln, 2005) in light of evidence provided (Phillips Burbules, 2000; Zammito, 2004). Post-positivism of this type is common place in social science for conceptual and practical reasons (Phillips Burbules, 2000; Zammito, 2004). What are the differences between the two Meta-Paradigms: Based on the literature, the most fundamental differences between both paradigms are how they search for the truth and define validity and reliability. The positivist paradigm seeks and finds them in a (perceived)  value free and objective evidence based world and the constructivists in a subjective, contextual and interpretive world (Silverman 2005, p. 6; and Cohen et al. 2007, p. 26). Research as creating new knowledge: Positivism and Post-positivism create knowledge by a process of accretion, with each fact (or probable fact) serving as a kind of building block that, when placed into its proper niche, adds to the growing edifice of knowledge. When the facts take the form of generalisation or cause-effect linkages, they may be used most efficiently for prediction and control. Generalisations may then be made, with predicable confidence, to a population of settings (Denzin Lincoln, 1998, pp. 212). What counts as evidence in Educational Research: What counts as evidence in educational research depends on what is being asked. If one is looking at effectiveness of direct impact then there would be a different type of key evidence compared to if the question was in relation to the nature of a problem, or how some intervention worked or how a naturally occurring process takes place. Basically the kinds of evidence that will count will depend on the nature of the proposition. Anyone that is interested in the evidence needs to remember that the evidence is always connected to what was being asked or the proposition. One cannot take for granted that it is true one needs to still ask: how is the connection made possible? And what values, assumptions and conventions are behind that kind of connection? (Andrews, 2007). Maintaining quality in Educational Research: The quality standards related to the post/positivist paradigm are validity and reliability. This is because the focus of this is to discover the truth using empirical investigation. Anderson and Arsenault (1998) write that validity refers to the extent to which what we measure reflects what we expected to measure [which] has two forms: internal and external (pp. 257). Related to the research, the term internal validity refers to how the findings meet the expected results. While, external validity refers to being able to generalise the findings to other situations and contexts. Therefore, an experiment is valid if the results are appropriate to the manipulated independent variable and if they are able to be generalised to individuals or contexts other than the experiments setting (Gay Airasian 2000, pp. 371). Because the focus of this paradigm is to find out the truth, reliability is an important indicator for the consistency of the research findings. Anderson and Arsenault (1998) state that reliability refers to the extent that an instrument will yield the same results each time it is administered (pp. 256) an example of this is, if you were to administer a survey the larger the source of the data you collect the more it will be reliable as the results become more generalised the more it will give the same results the next time you did it. Furthermore, trustworthiness is a foundational criteria to maintaining quality. Trustworthiness can be broken down into four quality standards these being, credibility using multiple methods and perspectives and member checking, transferablility by providing rich data and thick descriptions, dependability by having a detailed audit trail, and comformability can be achieved by giving readers clear track of data and interpretations. (Anderson and Arsenault 1998) Peer Review. Research shows the benefits of Peer review doesnt only improve the language that authors use and they way their ideas are presented, but also alerts them to statistical and scientific errors in their research, inappropriate methodology, or accuracies in referencing which they can then correct before the publication. (Taylor and Francis Author Services, 2010) An example of this is when one submits his/her work to an international journal for anonymous refereeing by unknown peers, they read they article critically and then suggest for it to be accepted, rejected, or most often revised and improved before it is published. Without this external seal of approval many scientists would consider any results as preliminary, potentially flawed (Gannon, 2001). Conclusion Conclusion: Educational research with its characteristics is influenced by four major paradigms. Each paradigm has its own epistemology, ontology, and quality standards which influence the researchers to find the truth and see the reality. The important point is that knowing the nature of each paradigm which can help the researchers to conduct their research process. Researchers can conduct the research within and across paradigms which is called multi-paradigmatic research paradigms (Taylor, 2008). The nature of educational research is analogous with the nature of research itself, which is systematic, reliable and valid to find the truth, investigates knowledge, and solves problems. Moreover, educational research process involves steps to collect the information in order to investigate problems and knowledge. However, the educational research is more complex because it can use various approaches and strategies to solve problems in educational setting. It also can involve many disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, behaviour, and history. In addition, educational research is important because of contributing knowledge development, practical improvement, and policy information. Therefore, educators can use those research findings to improve their competences and teaching and learning process (Yulirahmawati, 2008).

Career Development For Special Populations: Asperger Syndrome

Career Development For Special Populations: Asperger Syndrome To begin, I became very interested in Asperger Syndrome when I was teaching high school. One of my students had been diagnosed with Asperger Syndrome (AS) and had major issues with socialization and communication. Since this was his last year of High School, I wondered what his next step would be after graduation and what guidance (if any) he was getting from the school Guidance Counsellor in regards to career development. Asperger Syndrome is classified as an invisible disability and grouped under the umbrella of autism spectrum disorders. This research paper will be a compilation of characteristics of Asperger Syndrome, how this impacts the workforce, relationship to career theorists, and the importance of job coaches/career counsellors. INTRODUCTION: Asperger syndrome (AS) is defined as a developmental disorder that involves how the information is processed in the brain. It is often called high-functioning autism, and it is one of five pervasive developmental disorders known as the Autism Spectrum Disorders (NIMH, 2006). According to the Autism Society of Canada, approximately 15 in 10,000 Canadians have AS and it is the fastest growing developmental disorder in North America. Asperger syndrome can also be classified as a hidden disability in that it is impossible to tell that someone has the condition from their appearances alone. Compared to other types of autism, people with Asperger Syndrome have average or above average intelligence. It can also be argued that with the right amount of encouragement and proper support systems, adults with Asperger syndrome can live very meaningful, independent lives (National Autistic Society, 2009). People with Asperger Syndrome typically have extreme social deficits (Klin et al., 2000). Quite often, an individual with AS can show a wide range of behaviours and social skills, but common characteristics include difficulty in expressing feelings or emotions, developing friendships, and an inability to understand social rules and body language. Individuals with Asperger Syndrome are occasionally self-described outsider who may be unable to participate in normal social interactions because they simply lack the skills needed. Though companionship is wanted, frustration can often occur when trying to build relationships, likely because of failed attempts in the past (Klin et al., 2000). Also, gross motor skills, including posture and gait, and fine motor skills such as manual dexterity may be under-developed, making people with Asperger Syndrome seem clumsy or physically awkward (Klin et al., 2000). While there is substantial variation across individuals with regard to degree of impai rment in these areas, even slight deficits can have a significant impact on psychosocial development (K.K Higgins et al, 2008). In regards to career development, the social and communication problems inherent in Aspergers create challenges in job hunting and in sustaining long-term employment. Common social and communication problems experienced by an individual with AS include: difficulty maintaining conversations, inability to understand simple instructions and a need for a structured routine. Also, they may experience problems understanding the emotions of co-workers, and as a result, may react inappropriately. Some of these symptoms may create misunderstandings with co-workers and make it difficult for employees with AS to fit into the workplace environment. However, with this being said, people with Aspergers Syndrome can contribute greatly to their jobs and careers. Individuals with AS are often very smart, but they lack the skills required to hold a job. (K.K, Higgins et al., 2008). Many AS adults have an average to above average intelligence and because of this they are more than capable of being beneficial to the working environment. They may not be able to express themselves verbally as well as others, and may struggle with the social aspect, but much recognition can be given to their effort and work. Their precision and diligence lends itself to getting the job done right and allowing for hardly any mistakes. (K.K Higgins et al, 2008). SOCIAL SKILLS DEFICITS SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING (SST): In the article School-to-work transition and Aspergers Syndrome, Hendricks and Wehman (2009) detail how Asperger Syndrome is a pervasive developmental disorder characterized by mainly of underdeveloped social and communication skills. As mentioned in this article, Asperger Syndrome affects the social development of a person. An indivual was AS can find it difficult to maintain proper eye contact with another individual(s) during conversation. It can be very difficult for them to distinguish between sarcasm and regular speaking, and reading nonverbal cues given off by others can be a challenge. Another characteristic of Asperger syndrome is the intense focus that people with the syndrome can bring to very specific interests or topics. This can even be accompanied by continuous talking on s particular subject without even noticing the other persons boredom or need to go somewhere. All these characteristics can make an individual feel uncomfortable in social situations, as well as make it extremely difficult to socialize within the workplace (Hendricks and Wehman, 2009). For an individual with AS, learning a new job in the work force is not the problem; relating to others is the real issue. Because of these debilitating social skills deficits; they are unable to manoeuvre social situations or understand theory of mind (Hendricks and Wehman, 2009). The social communication impairments can interfere with both job attainment and job retention. For example, most employment settings require an interview prior to being hired for employment, and this task alone involves these critical skills. Without the needed non-verbal and verbal social communication skills to appropriately interview for a job, individuals with AS will be unlikely to secure employment (Hendricks and Wehman, 2009). As mentioned above, impaired social skills are a core feature of Asperger Syndrome and while individuals with AS have preserved cognitive functioning; their social difficulties have an effect on all areas of academic, emotional and social development (Rao et al., 2008). The need for social skills training (SST) intervention is certainly warranted for individuals with AS. The following two articles take a closer look at the SST interventions available for individuals with AS: Social Skills Intervention for Children with Asperger Syndrome or High Functioning Autism: A Review and Recommendations by Rao et al. (2008) and Social Skills Training for Adolescents with Asperger Syndrome and High Functioning Autism by Tse et al. (2007). These SST interventions should be reviewed and taken into account by career counsellors/job coaches when helping individuals with Asperger Syndrome. A shared belief by both authors, that SST interventions are essential and worthwhile for individuals with AS, represents a shared theoretical perspective on successful human development. Both authors realize the importance of social skills for individuals with AS because without it they will struggle in all facets of life. Although these authors are not addressing SST interventions for the purpose of career development and success specifically, their work does lend itself to the topic. Persons with disabilities are typically confronted with a host of career development issues (Nyles Harris-Bowlsbey, 2005). One such issue is the development of social/interpersonal skills, which evidently relates to individuals with AS. This issue, like the others, requires specific career development interventions to facilitate the career development of individuals with disabilities (Nyles Harris-Bowlsbey, 2005). These SST interventions mentioned in the above articles are imperative because they sho w how SST interventions can help individuals with AS to change their self-concepts and challenge their emotional intelligence (EQ). Most importantly, the articles mentioned above validate the belief that social skills are crucial for life as well as career success. TRANSITIONS TO THE WORKFORCE: Individuals with Asperger Syndrome can find it very difficult transitioning from school to the workforce and because of that the quality of life for young adults with Asperger syndrome can quickly diminish. Leaving school and possibly their homes, tends to lead to the abrupt end of normalcy and words and employment problems can be created before the individual has even entered the workplace for the first time. With this in mind, job training and life skills programs designed for people with Asperger Syndrome are excellent ways to help a person transition from school to work and independent living. These programs address specific skills that are required for work, create job environment interaction, and provide strategies on how to deal with common workplace challenges. Some of the programs require the person to live on the premises and gradually adjust to independent living and employment. Hendricks and Wehmans (2009) article School-to-work transition and Asperger Syndrome emphasise how the transition from school services to adulthood can be particularly difficult for many adolescence with autism disorders. Although some individuals with AS are able to successfully transition, most are faced with significant obstacles in multiple areas as they attempt to negotiate their way into college, work, community participations and independent living, Hendricks and Wehmans (2009) article also contains a review of research related to the transition from school to adulthood for youth with AS in the areas of educations, employment, community living and community integration. They state that it is these key areas of the transition process that are crucial for success in adulthood (Hendricks Wehman., 2009). Community participation is also a critical component of the transition planning process. They discuss how planning must involve the entire community in which the person wishes to take part after high school and might include numerous activities, organizations, agencies an d institutions. Finally, Hendricks and Wehman (2009) detail the relation between community participation and reduction of social skills deficits. They state that community participation and includes productive engagement in these activities but, more importantly, encompasses the desired goal of integration into social networks and relationship development (Hendricks Wehman., 2009, p. 82). WORKPLACE DIFFICULTIES: In 2004, only ten years after Asperger Syndrome became recognised as its own separate disorder in the DSM, Karen Hurlbutt and Lynn Chalmers published an article titled, Employment and Adults with Asperger. In this article, Hurlbutt and Chalmers (2004) conducted a study to determine if there were certain overlapping factors which influenced adults with AS in the workplace. They concluded that individuals with Asperger could find employment but had a hard time staying employed. Often, employment is terminated due to communication problems between the employer or coworkers and the employee. Adults with AS often have a difficult time understanding social cues and non-verbal language we well as interpreting other peoples feelings. Also theory of mind is a huge problem for these individuals since there is a block which does not allow them to understand other peoples perspectives. Clearly, research as shown that the greatest difficulties faced by individuals with AS in the workplace seem to emerge from the deficits in social and communication skills. These social communication impairments can interfere with both job attainment and job retention. For example, most employment settings require an interview prior to being hired for employment, and this task alone could be very challenging for the individual with AS. Without the needed non-verbal and verbal social communication skills to appropriately interview for a job, individuals with AS will be unlikely to secure employment (K.K. Higgins et al., 2008). Hurlbutt and Chalmers (2004) indicated that frequent unemployment rates of individuals with AS arise from difficulties in the social aspect of employment but not with actual job duties (p. 218). Therefore, even when an individual with AS has the requisite job skills, is able to successfully complete a job interview, and enters the workforce, the social interacti on aspects of employment often create barriers to job retention and career advancement. Deficits in these areas can also undermine the individuals ability to adhere to workplaces rules/standards, work effectively with colleagues/supervisors, and respond appropriately to feedback. Many individuals with AS also face challenges in the workplace because of the shame associated with their disability and the associated negative perceptions of their co-workers and superiors. Problems that are likely to occur in the working environment include higher than usual tendency for the employee with Asperger syndrome to lose his or her temper, to be viewed by colleagues as arrogant, have difficulties asking for help and being assertive. In addition, many individuals with Asperger syndrome have a sensory system that makes it difficult to cope with everyday workplace sensations, such as office chatter or flickering ceiling lights (Meyer, 2001). Furthermore, the odd behaviours of a co-worker with AS can be perceived as a threat to the social climate of the workplace. For example, co-workers may feel uncomfortable if the individual with AS violates their personal space or work area and supervisors may lose their patience with the employee because he or she seems to lack understanding about common social expectations in the workplace. These reactions are likely to create a work environment where the individual with AS does not feel welcome or, in the extreme circumstances, feels unsafe (Meyer, 2001). Symptoms of depression and anxiety can be an especially concerning outcome of such negative experiences on the job (Hurlbutt and Chalmers, 2004). Undoubtedly, these workplace difficulties need to be addressed, and supports should be put into place to help aid both the AS individual and their co-workers. Compassion, understanding and being knowledgeable about this disability is key to success in the workplace. VOCATIONAL SUCCESS: To begin, in 1951, Donald Super defined vocational guidance as the process of helping a person to develop and accept an integrated and adequate picture of himself and of his role in the world of work, to test this concept against reality and to convert it into reality, with satisfaction to himself and society (Herr, Cramer, Niles, 2004). His assumption that both personal needs, values and intelligence as well as socio economic  and cultural variables (economy, family, school, community, labour market) help an individual to develop both an occupational and self. Relating vocational success to individuals with AS, their lack of social competence and self-esteem may also become a barrier to vocational opportunities (Tse et al., 2007). Individuals living with Asperger Syndrome face a number of unique challenges when it comes to their vocational success. Because this developmental disability is characterized by social and communicative deficits including problems interpreting social cue s, inflexibility and discomfort with change, and difficulty adapting to new tasks and routines (Muller et al., 2003), the social implications of the job site place great demands on individuals with Asperger Syndrome, and can be a heavy determinant of on-going or future employment. Historically, it seems that there has been a great deal research surrounding educational support needs of children with Asperger Syndrome; however, few studies have focused on the vocational characteristics of emerging adults with AS and the skills they need to thrive in the workplace. Meeting the Vocational Support Needs of Individuals with Asperger Syndrome and Other Autism Spectrum Disabilities by Muller et al. (2003) researched the perspectives of individuals with AS, and sought strategies for improving vocational placement and job-retention services for individuals in this demographic. Primarily the researchers aimed to gather information regarding the real-world employment experiences of individuals with AS; their findings were divided into three major categories including the overview of positive and negative experiences, major obstacles for successful employment, and recommendations for appropriate supports. One very useful section described ASD-specific supports, especially the need for properly educated Vocational Rehabilitation Counsellors. The participants identified four major expectations from these professionals; assistance with the job search process, on-site job-coaching, facilitation of social interactions, and mentoring services (Muller et al. 2003, p.170). Considering the vocational difficulties experienced by individuals living with AS, their overall career development is greatly impacted. As a persons career pattern is influenced by decision making style, values, life-roles and self-concepts; the social and communicative characteristics of AS are also grand indicators. Resultant dissatisfaction and perceived failure in the form of job loss and un-employment can cause great amounts of stress. The type of work in which we engage is a determinant of self-image, and when uncontrollable psychological factors influence work-success regardless of credentials and work ethic, the results can be devastating, hence the importance of vocational support and research in the area. (K.K. Higgins et al., 291). JOB COACHES CAREER COUNSELLORS: It is estimated that only 10 per cent of adults with Asperger syndrome receive support at the interview stage and around 20 per cent receive some sort of specialist support when in employment (Beardon and Edmonds, 2007). In general, it tends to be the case that adults with Asperger syndrome suffer from a lack of understanding, support, respect and appropriate services in the employment domain (Beardon and Edmonds, 2007). It is important the career counsellors understand the role of a job coach- as it may be a viable option for many individuals with AS. Also, a job coach should work very closely with career counsellors to ensure optimal success in the workplace. Communication Supports by Job Coaches of People with Developmental Disabilities is a research study completed in connection to job supports for individuals with AS. DAgostino and Cascella (2008) considered job coaches knowledge base with regards to quality communication indicators. The participant base for this study consisted of thirty-six job coaches whom were employed among older adolescents and adults with developmental disabilities (including Autism Spectrum Disorders and AS). Specifically, the researchers used a questionnaire that would identify job coaches knowledge and experience with communication supports and assessment tools. The information collected during this study revealed a number of major findings. Job coaches reported a high-degree of prior training in specific communication interventions, they could accurately define many concepts and terms associated with communication support, and were overall knowledgeable about communication and communication supports (DAgosti no and Cascella 2008). This article showed that job coaches were very successful with communication interventions and supports given to individuals with disabilities lead to a great chance of success. Career counselling and guidance can move with the changes to make a greater difference in peoples life by helping them to connect with the parts of their own lives and connect with others in community for the common good (Hansen, 2001). With this in mind, a job coach can be especially helpful to the individual with AS with identifying and remedying problematic behaviours associated with the disorder such as interacting inappropriately with co-workers, misinterpreting and responding to social cues, responding to supervision in an unacceptable manner, inability to conduct adequate self assessments of ones job performance and unintentionally violating unspoken work norms and rules (K.K. Higgins et al., 296). Also, the idea of a job coach could be very beneficial because they could support the individual with AS until the employee begins to develop natural skills on the job on their own. Like job coaches, career counselors [also] have a responsibility to help clients free themselves from negative attitudes, irrational beliefs, information deficits and low self-esteem (Herr, Cramer, Niles, 2004). It goes without saying that competent career counsellors must be good listeners, understanding, empathic towards their client and willing and able to develop trusting relationships. It is important for career counsellors to remember that one of the defining characteristics of AS is the presence of marked deficiencies in social interactions, communication, and behaviours and because of this characteristic, individuals with AS are often viewed by others as odd, or peculiar. While individuals with AS may be physically indistinguishable from their peers and have similar intellectual capabilities, deficits in social interaction, behaviour, and communication often result in the perceptions that these individuals are loners. This is why it is extremely imperative for career counsel lors to be patient and understanding of this disability. Also, Prager Freeman (1979) explain that level of aspiration is also frequently related to self-esteem, with persons of higher aspiration also persons of higher self-esteem (Herr et al., 2004, p. 177). Consequently, many youths with AS have few, if any, meaningful peer relationships which may affect self-concept and esteem. Again, it is vital to reiterate the importance for career counsellors to be patient, understanding, and accepting with their AS client while trying to raise the individuals self esteem. Without a doubt, the ability to understand why others do what they do and think the way they do is undoubtedly one of, if not the most, important traits a career counsellor should possess when working with an individual with AS. Given the right support and encouragement from a career counsellor, it is believed that individuals with Asperger syndrome are capable of negotiating key employment-related social situations, such as job interviews, team working, and the broader social con ventions of work organisations (Attwood, 2007). Essential to a process that integrates career and personal counselling is the ability to assess clients differing psychological needs and to understand how specific occupations and roles fulfill or frustrate various needs (Manuele-Adkins, 1992). Helping an individual with Asperger Syndrome involves working on their particular interests, strengths and skills, while possibly avoiding jobs that involve major quantities of social interaction. Notably, career counsellors should realize that one of the best ways for job seekers with the condition to increase their chances for successful employment is to prepare for work and to look for jobs with employers that are educated about Asperger Syndrome. Autism and Asperger support organizations can help job seekers prepare for work life and find employers who are sensitive to their needs. Career counsellors can work with these organizations if they need extra supports or resources on this disability. RELATION TO CAREER DEVELOPMENT THEORIES: Overall, the majority of influential career development theories acknowledge the massive role that social and self awareness play for successful career development. The following section will discuss how Hollands and Gottfredsons theories apply to individuals with AS. HOLLANDS THEORY: Hollands theory (as cited in Herr, Cramer Niles, 2004, p. 212) contends that individual behaviour is a function of the interaction between ones personality and environment and that choice behaviour is an expression of personality. Hollands theory of Person-Environment Interactions is also applicable to individual with AS, specifically the consideration of The Social Environment. In many regards the components of the social environment, especially the activities that inform, develop, and enlighten should be explored by support workers and employers allowing them to better accommodate workers with AS. As individuals with AS aspire to succeed vocationally in both work-skill and social-skill; awareness, tolerance, and support must be present to aid their vocational endeavours. This paired with on-going support will increase employment rates, and career satisfaction for individuals with AS (Herr, Cramer Niles, 2004). To achieve congruence in future employment, according to Holland individuals must use self-reflection to understand their personality type so that they can make an informed decision about which type of environment they feel would be best suited to them. Holland bases his theory on two beliefs. To begin he believes that individuals search for careers that will allow them to use their skills and abilities. It is known that individuals with AS are very capable employees when their skills are matched up to their employment. Second in Hollands theory is that there is a strong interaction between personality and environment which in turn affects behaviour. This must be considered for individuals with AS since they must consider employment opportunities in which they will not be forced to socialize on a regular basis. It is very important for counsellors to be aware of the importance of congruence between the environment and the personality of the AS individual in an effort to minimize any problems which may arise in work environments (Herr, Cramer Niles, 2004). GOTTFREDSONS THEORY: One of the major findings in the article Employment and Adults with Asperger Syndrome by Karen Hurlbutt and Lynn Chalmers (2004) was that AS individuals had difficulty finding work in their area of speciality and are therefore typically underemployed. This can be linked to Gottfredsons theory of compromise in that individuals were compromising on their goals and settling for occupations for which they were over-qualified. Gottfredson believes that it is important for people to understand their abilities and to be aware that they have many options and that they should not have to compromise. Individuals with AS have a great amount of self-awareness in regards of the supports they require. However, in association to theories suggested by Gottfredson these individuals may succumb to circumscription and illegitimate comprise based upon supportable vocational difficulties. These two factors occur naturally throughout career development, but for someone with AS, having to avoid a particul ar field or dream job may be a result of social pressures and expectations rather than a lack of potential, intelligence, or situational realities (Herr, Cramer Niles, 2004). CONCLUSION: The challenges faced by individuals living with AS can be staggering, but as time passes awareness is grows and support become more effective. Of course, studies will differ in perspective and depth, but the overall process is a step towards essential accommodation. At a time when career development researchers pay little attention to the career experiences of persons with disabilities (Niles Harris-Bowlsbey, 2005), the work of researchers mentioned in this paper is crucial. Considering that 18.7% of Americans between the ages of 15-64 have a disability (Nile Harris-Bowlsbey, 2005), the work of these individuals is not only crucial for people with AS but for the future of our workforce. People with Aspergers Syndrome have every right to equal treatment in the workplace. They cannot be discriminated against because of their differences. With continued hard work and help from competent job coaches/career counsellors, a person with AS can lead a highly successful life. The bottom line is that Asperger Syndrome is a condition that should not be a barrier to having a good career. Hopefully with future exploration of past and present research, supports will develop and be applied so that individuals living with AS will fulfill their vocational potential.

Second Earl Of Rochester Essay -- essays research papers

The satirists shared a talent for making other individuals feel uncomfortable, particularly by making them aware of their own moral inadequacies. They used irony, derision, and wit to attack human vice or folly. One method the satirist utilized to catch their readers' attention, while also making them feel uncomfortable, was to describe those things that were deemed inappropriate to discuss openly in society. The classical example of a topic that was discussed behind closed doors, yet the satirist used freely, was sex. Mention of such things as sex can always bring a giggle, excite feelings of hidden passion, or make one's cheeks rosy from embarrassment. John Wilmot, Second Earl of Rochester, and Jonathan Swift, were two satirist that were noted for using perverse language and graphic depictions to elicit desired emotions from their readers and to wage their attacks on human folly. To understand Rochester's use of sex in his work, one must understand his distaste for reason. This can be seen in his poem, A Satyr Against Mankind, when he comments: "Women and Men of wit, are dang'rous tools, and ever fatal to admiring fools." Rochester viewed reason as a vice rather than an admirable trait in man. When man followed a course of action that was advised by reason he turned into a coward who often betrayed his ideals, his family, and his friends. Rochester believed that to enjoy true happiness one must follow a course dictated by passion. Unlike reason, the passions do not betray one's senses and ideals. According to Rochester, the passions define who an individual is because the passions encompass one's emotions and desires. Reason cannot fully comprehend such a thing. Rochester highlights this belief in his poem's with tales of lust and sexual innuendoes. He uses perverse language and topics not only to mock those that believe reason is the human faculty that can bring about self-satisfaction, but also to describe to his readers that sensual pleasure is the highest pleasure because sensual pleasure is derived from passion, not reason. Rochester's poems rarely discuss love in the traditional sense; rather, he discusses it in a bodily context. Naturally, this would bring about the ire in any moralist. His poems make reference to ancient figures that draw on images of mass orgies and debauchery. He often uses language that elicits images of human... ...llivers Travels not only excite the attention of the reader but they also leave the reader with a very pessimistic impression of the modern world. If Gulliver had left a description of a pile of soil instead of his urination procedure, the reader would perhaps view his work as boring, but not as comedic or repulsive. The tales would have lost their derogatory tone, their satirical edge, and their comedic nature had Swift not used such images. Such images and language are a unique element of satirical writing. Satirist wanted to attack the vices of the community and impress an image on their readers. They, however, could not accomplish this through bland social commentary. Every literary style has certain tools to capture its audiences. The romantics used fruitful language and supernatural images. The realist used images and words that photographed how life really was. The satirist used wit, irony, sarcasm, as well as crude images and language. If they failed to use these tools then their attacks were not heeded and their words were not remembered. Rochester and Swift did not fail to use their satirical qualities and their impression on the literary world remains to this day.

The Civil War :: essays research papers

The Civil War On paper the North was far stronger than the South. It had two and a half times as many people, and it possessed far more ships, miles of railroad, and manufacturing enterprises. Southerners, however, had the advantage of fighting on home ground with better military leadership. But Union superiority in manpower was not so great as the gross figures suggest. Half a million people scattered from Dakota to California, could make no substantial contribution to Union strength. And every year Union regiments were sent to the West to fight Indians. Hundreds of thousands of Americans in loyal border states and in southern Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois worked or fought for southern independence. Though, every state furnished men for the other side, there was little doubt that more Federals than Confederates "crossed over." The South had superior officer personnel. For twenty years before Lincoln's inauguration, southern officers had dominated the U.S. Army. Another source of southern confidence was cotton. Secession leaders expected to exchange that staple for the foreign manufactured goods they needed. The South's most important advantage was that it had only to defend relatively short interior lines against invaders who had to deal with long lines of communication and to attack a broad front. The Confederacy also had no need to divert fighting men to tasks such as garrisoning captured cities and holding conquered territory. In a short war, numerical superiority would not have made much of a difference. As the war continued, however, numerical strength became a psychological as well as a physical weapon. During the closing years of the conflict, Union armies, massed at last against critical strongholds, suffered terrible casualties but seemed to grow stronger with every defeat.

Motor Cyclists Essay

Psychological and social factors influencing motorcycle rider intentions and behaviour Barry Watson Deborah Tunnicliff Katy White Cynthia Schonfeld Darren Wishart Centre for Accident Research and Road Safety (CARRS-Q) Queensland University of Technology August 2007 Psychological and social factors influencing motorcycle rider intentions and behaviour i Published by: Postal address: Office location: Telephone: Facsimile: E-mail: Internet: Australian Transport Safety Bureau PO Box 967, Civic Square ACT 2608 15 Mort Street, Canberra City, Australian Capital Territory 1800 621 372; from overseas + 61 2 6274 6440 02 6274 3117; from overseas + 61 2 6274 3117 atsbinfo@atsb. gov. au www. atsb. gov. au  © CARRS-Q, Queensland University of Technology 2006 To encourage the dissemination of this publication, it may be copied, downloaded, displayed, printed, reproduced, and distributed in unaltered form (retaining this notice). Subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968, no other use of the material in this publication may be made without the authorisation of the Queensland University of Technology. ii Psychological and social factors influencing motorcycle rider intentions and behaviour DOCUMENT RETRIEVAL INFORMATION Report No. RSRG 2007-04 Publication date August 2007 No. of pages 152 ISBN 978 0 642 25564 8 ISSN Publication title Psychological and social factors influencing motorcycle rider intentions and behaviour Author(s) Barry Watson, Deborah Tunnicliff, Katy White, Cynthia Schonfeld, Darren Wishart. Organisation that prepared this document Centre for Accident Research and Road Safety Queensland University of Technology GPO Box 2434 Brisbane QLD 4001. Sponsor [Available from] Australian Transport Safety Bureau PO Box 967, Civic Square ACT 2608 Australia www. atsb. gov. au Project Officer John Collis Reference No. Aug2007/DOTARS 50323. Abstract This report documents two studies undertaken to identify and assess the psychological and social factors influencing motorcycle rider behaviour. The primary aim of the research was to develop a Rider Risk Assessment Measure (RRAM), which would act as a tool for identifying high-risk riders by assessing rider intentions and self-reported behaviour. The first study (n = 47) involved a qualitative exploration of rider perceptions utilising a focus-group methodology. This study identified six key aspects of rider behaviour considered to influence safety: motorcycle handling skills; rider awareness; riding while impaired or not; and the tendency to bend road rules, push limits, and ride at extreme speeds or perform stunts. Study two (n = 229) was survey-based and examined the psychological and social factors influencing these behaviours, utilising the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and other relevant psychological constructs, such as sensation seeking and aggression. This study indicated that risky rider intentions were primarily influenced by attitudes and sensation seeking, while safer intentions were influenced by perceived behavioural control. While intentions significantly predicted all six types of behaviour, sensation seeking and a propensity for aggression emerged as significant predictors, particularly for the volitional risk-taking behaviours. The measures of intention and behaviour comprising the RRAM were not found to be significantly correlated with self-reported crash involvement, possibly indicating shortcomings in the measurement of crashes. However, significant correlations were found between the components of the RRAM and self-reported traffic offence involvement. While further work is required to refine and validate the RRAM, it represents a potential tool for informing and evaluating motorcycle rider safety countermeasures. Keywords Motorcycle safety, theory of planned behaviour, sensation seeking, aggression Notes (1) (2) ATSB reports are disseminated in the interest of information exchange. The views expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent those of the Australian Government or the ATSB. Psychological and social factors influencing motorcycle rider intentions and behaviour iii CONTENTS Executive summary EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Background Motorcycle riding is rapidly increasing in popularity in Australia, attracting a much wider demographic of people than in decades past. Unfortunately, whilst the overall number of road deaths in Australia has generally been reducing, the proportion of motorcycle-related fatalities has been rising in recent years. Further, the proportion of motorcycle-related fatalities in Australia is unacceptably high compared with other OECD countries. To reduce motorcycle-related fatalities on Australian roads, there is an urgent need to consider motorcyclists as distinct from other road users. This program of research facilitates the understanding of safety issues from a motorcyclist perspective and provides important information on factors influencing safe and unsafe rider intentions and behaviour. The aims of this program of research were to: †¢ develop a better understanding of the psychological and social influences on rider behaviour in an Australian context; †¢ guide the development of future motorcycle safety countermeasures; and †¢ develop a tool (the Rider Risk Assessment Measure – RRAM) to inform the evaluation of motorcycle safety countermeasures, particularly in the area of training and education. To achieve these aims, two particular studies were undertaken: a qualitative study of motorcycle rider perceptions utilising a focus-group methodology and a survey-based quantitative study of selfreported rider intentions and behaviour. Both studies were underpinned by a theoretical framework drawing on the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), identity theory, social identity theory, and other relevant psychological concepts such as sensation seeking and aggression. Key findings Study 1 explored motorcyclists’ perceptions relating to ‘safe’ and ‘risky’ riding and the different personal and social factors that influenced their behaviour. A total of 43 people participated in this study, either as part of a focus group or as an interviewee. This exploratory process revealed six types of behaviours which were commonly believed to influence the safety (or riskiness) of motorcycle riding. These six behaviours are discussed below. Two behaviours were identified as being particularly essential to rider safety. The first was the necessity of being able to handle the motorcycle proficiently and skilfully. The second related to the need for riders to maintain a high level of concentration whilst riding and to stay aware of the changing road environment. In contrast, there was some debate about the inherent safety or riskiness of the two next behaviours commonly identified. Firstly, some riders believed that obeying the road rules was essential to their safety, whilst others reported that it was often necessary to break the road rules in order to stay safe. Secondly, the definition of what constituted ‘riding whilst impaired’ differed amongst riders. Most riders agreed that ‘drinking and riding’ was dangerous. However, for some, even one alcoholic drink before riding was considered dangerous, whilst others would ride after drinking provided they did not consider themselves to be over the legal BAC limit. Some riders stated that riding when viii Psychological and social factors influencing motorcycle rider intentions and behaviour they were tired was dangerous; however, fatigue was not considered a serious safety issue for many participants. Two further behaviours identified by participants were often associated with their accounts of crash involvement, yet not seen as intrinsically ‘unsafe’ by most riders. The first of these was the concept of ‘pushing your limits’. Most riders interviewed appeared to enjoy pushing the limits of their ability on a motorcycle. Whilst agreeing that pushing the limits too far was dangerous, pushing them to a point that tested a rider’s abilities was often reported to facilitate safety as this process developed a rider’s skill. The second behaviour that was often mentioned in connection with crashes was extreme riding (e. g. , performing stunts and riding at extreme speeds). The act of perfecting a stunt was often reported to result in the crashing of the motorcycle, although these crashes were usually accepted as a normal part of the learning process. Once perfected, performing stunts did not appear to be considered an intrinsically unsafe behaviour, unless performed in traffic or other unpredictable situations. A sizable minority of both male and female participants reported riding at extreme speeds. These riders often argued that they could ride extremely fast, safely, on public roads provided certain conditions were met (e. g. good visibility, minimal traffic, weather, road, and motorcycle maintenance). Study 2 involved 229 active motorcyclists who completed a questionnaire assessing: their riding intentions and self-reported behaviour; the psychological and social factors influencing these intentions and behaviour; and their self-reported involvement in road crashes and traffic offences over the last two years. The questionnaire was structured around the six types of rider behaviour identified as important in Study 1. Key results of this study are discussed below. In order to obtain an insight into the factors underpinning both ‘safe’ and ‘risky’ behaviour, the six areas of interest were operationalised as three ‘safer’ behavioural intentions (i. e. handle the motorcycle skilfully, maintain 100% awareness, not ride impaired) and three ‘riskier’ intentions which represented more volitional risk-taking (i. e. bend the road rules, push the limits, perform stunts or ride at extreme speeds). Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were then performed to assess the influence of different psychological and social factors on these intentions. These analyses indicated that a greater proportion of variance could be explained in the case of the riskier riding intentions [R2 ranging from 57% – 66%] than the safer riding intentions [R2 ranging from 22% – 36%]. The TPB construct of perceived behavioural control (PBC) significantly predicted all three ‘safer’ intentions, while attitude was a significant predictor of the three riskier intentions. In terms of the social influences, the TPB construct of subjective norm (which assesses the influence of others considered important) proved a relatively weak predictor of behaviour. However, the measure of specific subjective norm (i. e. the influence of the people that someone rides with) emerged as a significant predictor of three of the six intentions. Over and above this, a propensity for sensation seeking was found to be significant predictor of the three risky intentions. Overall, a similar pattern of results emerged when the self-reported behaviours of the participants were examined. Firstly, while the various psychological and social variables examined in the study significantly predicted all six behaviours, considerably larger amounts of variance were explained for the three volitional risk-taking behaviours, i. e. bend road rules to get through traffic [R2 = . 67], push my limits [R2 = . 59] and perform stunts and/or ride at extreme speeds [R2 = . 69]. Secondly, the results were largely consistent with the tenets of the TPB, with intentions proving a significant predictor of all six behaviours. Thirdly, sensation seeking, along with rider aggression, emerged as a strong predictor of all six behaviours. Indeed, together, these two variables accounted for between 7 – 20% of additional variance in the six behaviours. Not surprisingly, these two variables accounted for relatively large amounts of additional variance in the ride while impaired [R2 ch = . 20] and the perform stunts and/or ride at extreme speeds [R2 ch = . 15] variables. Unfortunately, no significant correlations were found between the various measures of intention and behaviour operationalised in Study 2 and the self-reported crash involvement of the participants. It Psychological and social factors influencing motorcycle rider intentions and behaviour ix is possible that this indicates that the six behaviours of interest, in reality, do not have a close relationship with crash involvement. However, this conclusion does not seem consistent with either the findings of Study 1 or the research evidence reviewed in Chapter 2. More likely, the findings highlight shortcomings in the size of the sample and/or the way that crash involvement was measured in the study. In particular, given that crashes are relatively rare events, crashes were measured over a two year period in order to ensure that (some) participants would have experienced a sufficient number of crashes to facilitate the analyses. However, this raises the possibility of recall problems that may have reduced the accuracy and reliability of the data, while the two year period may have been too long to accurately reflect the current intentions and behaviour of the participants. In contrast, the majority of the intention and behaviour measures were found to be significantly correlated with self-reported traffic offence involvement. In particular, significant associations were found between self-reported traffic offences and the three ‘riskier’ intentions examined in the study (i. e. those relating to more volitional risk-taking, namely, bend the road rules, push my limits and perform stunts and/or ride at extreme speeds). In addition, significant associations were found between traffic offence involvement and five of the six self-reported behaviours examined (the only exception being for awareness errors). These results don’t necessarily confirm the inherent ‘riskiness’ of the behaviours examined, since engaging in an illegal behaviour may not always result in a crash. However, they do provide prima facia evidence supporting the validity of the intention and behaviour measures developed in this study. Strengths and limitations of the research This program of research featured a number of strengths. Firstly, it was firmly grounded in theory; secondly, it utilised both qualitative and quantitative methods to obtain a broad insight into the factors influencing motorcycle rider behaviour; thirdly, the design of the research was informed by input from active motorcyclists; and finally, it adopted a balanced approach to motorcycle safety by examining both safe and risky riding intentions and behaviour. Nonetheless, the program of research also had a number of limitations. Both Studies 1 and 2 consisted of participants primarily recruited from South East Queensland. In addition, the participants were volunteers who were generally older in age. As a result, the samples used in this research may not be representative of Australian motorcyclists in general, but instead reflect a subset of older, primarily recreational, riders. This should be borne in mind when interpreting the results. Furthermore, a number of other potential limitations in the Study 2 questionnaire design emerged during the analysis of the results. These included the way that fatigue was grouped with alcohol and drugs to assess intentions and behaviour relating to riding while impaired and, as noted above, the manner in which crash involvement was measured. Implications of the research At a theoretical level, this program of research has confirmed that the predictive utility of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) can be substantially improved by the addition of other variables. In particular, this research demonstrated that subjective norm (SN) was a relatively weak predictor of intentions and that the specific subjective norm (SSN) (i.e. assessing the influence of those people that someone rides with) performed relatively better as a measure of social influence. Moreover, both sensation seeking and the propensity to ride aggressively proved significant predictors of all six behaviours examined, over and above the TPB and other social influence variables. The findings relating to sensation seeking are consistent with previous research in the traffic psychology area. x Psychological and social factors influencing motorcycle rider intentions and behaviour. However, the results relating to aggression warrant more attention, since this variable proved a relatively stronger predictor than sensation seeking of the error-based behaviours (i. e. handling errors and awareness errors), the ride while impaired behaviour, and the perform stunts and/or ride at extreme speeds behaviour. This suggests that the propensity to ride aggressively has a broader influence on rider behaviour, which is not limited to the more volitional risk-taking types of behaviours. At a practical level, this program of research has identified a number of ways to enhance current motorcycle safety countermeasures, particularly in the area of rider training and education. Most particularly, it has identified a range of psychological and social influences on rider intentions and behaviour that appear to be beyond the scope of current skills-based approaches to motorcycle training and education. Consequently, further work is required to develop and trial new approaches to rider training and education that more effectively address the attitudinal and motivational influences on riding, both of a personal and social nature. To assist in this process, this research has undertaken the first steps in the development of the Rider Risk Assessment Measure (RRAM). This tool is intended to act as a means of identifying high-risk riders by assessing their intentions and self-reported behaviour (in relation to both ‘safe’ and ‘risky’ riding). While further work is required to refine and validate the RRAM, it represents a tool that can be used in a variety of ways to enhance motorcycle safety countermeasures, including informing the design and content of training programs and evaluating the impact of different  initiatives on rider behaviour. Psychological and social factors influencing motorcycle rider intentions and behaviour xi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to acknowledge the funding support provided by the Australian Government, through the Australian Transport Safety Bureau’s (ATSB) Road Safety Research Grants Programme. The development and conduct of this study has involved the contribution of a large number of people. While it is difficult to acknowledge all the individuals that have contributed, the authors would like to thank: †¢ †¢ Mr John Collis from the ATSB for his ongoing advice and support; those people who assisted us organise the focus groups, from organisations such as Queensland Transport, Motorcycle Riders Association Queensland, Ulysses, and Q-Ride providers; personnel from the Queensland Police Service, particularly the Logan and Brisbane West Districts, who assisted in the distribution of the pilot and main questionnaires at various motorcycle events; The ongoing support for motorcycle research from Morgan and Wacker Pty Ltd; and the assistance of Morgan & Wacker Motorcycle Training Centre, particularly Mr Fred Davies, in the finalisation and distribution of the Study 2 questionnaire.   xii Psychological and social factors influencing motorcycle rider intentions and behaviour GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND ACRONYMS ABS ATSB BAC Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Transport Safety Bureau [formerly Federal Office of Road Safety (FORS)]. Blood Alcohol Concentration. In Australia, the legal amount of alcohol that may be present in the blood is 0. 05% if the driver or rider is on an unrestricted licence. It is usually measured either by a police breathalyser or a by a blood test (see also Over the limit). A person who identifies with, and belongs to, an organised outlaw motorcycle club. Club members ride motorcycles and often wear jackets with ‘patches’ which identify the club they belong to (Veno, 2002). A motorcycle enthusiast. May or may not belong to a motorcycle club (Krige, 1995a). Centre for Accident Research and Road Safety – Queensland. A study design which collects data on the perceptions or behaviours of subjects at one point in time, as opposed to a longitudinal.